how do you do a hard reload in various browsers?

A hard reload, also known as a cache-clearing reload, is a way to reload a web page by bypassing the cache and loading the latest version of the page from the server. Here are the steps to perform a hard reload in various browsers:

Google Chrome:

  • On Windows/Linux, press Ctrl + Shift + R
  • On Mac, press Command + Shift + R

Firefox:

  • On Windows/Linux, press Ctrl + F5
  • On Mac, press Command + Shift + R

Safari:

  • On Mac, press Command + Option + R

Microsoft Edge:

  • On Windows, press Ctrl + F5
  • On Mac, press Command + Shift + R

Opera:

  • On Windows/Linux, press Ctrl + F5
  • On Mac, press Command + Shift + R

Note that a hard reload may take longer to load the page since it needs to fetch all the content from the server again.